A Comparison of Linguistic Complexity-Based Readability Methods in Educational Texts: Systematic Literature Review
Keywords:
readability; linguistic complexity; educational texts; qualitative method; quantitative method
Abstract
This study aims to compare qualitative and quantitative methods used in linguistic complexity-based readability analysis of educational texts. The study employed a systematic literature review design following the PRISMA framework. A total of 500 records were identified from Google Scholar, then screened using inclusion and exclusion criteria covering publication year, document type, publication stage, journal quality, language, and open access availability. After screening titles, abstracts, and the eligibility of full texts, 20 studies were included for synthesis. The findings indicate that quantitative approaches dominate readability research, particularly through readability formulas, sentence length, word length, lexical density, cloze tests, and computational linguistic indicators. These methods are effective for producing objective and comparable readability scores, but they are limited in explaining semantic, discourse, and pedagogical contexts. Qualitative approaches are less common, yet they provide a deeper interpretation of text function, content relevance, and learner needs. Mixed-method approaches emerge as the most integrative option because they combine measurable linguistic indicators with contextual interpretation. The review suggests that future readability studies should integrate numerical assessment and pedagogical interpretation to produce more valid readability standards for educational texts.
References
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Choirul Imam, M., & Laksono, K. (2018). Journal of Educational Studies and Research Findings. Journal of Primary Education Review, 4(1). http://journal.unesa.ac.id/index.php/PD
Crossley, S., Heintz, A., Choi, J. S., Batchelor, J., Karimi, M., & Malatinszky, A. (2023). A large-scale corpus for assessing text readability. Behavior Research Methods, 55(2), 491–507. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-022-01802-x
Dubay, W. H. (2004). The Principles of Readability. http://www.impact-information.com
Fajriyah, R. N., Talitha, S., & Eryanti, U. (2025). Analysis of Multimodal Literacy Use in Text Examples in the 8th Grade Indonesian Language Textbook. Literat - Journal of Indonesian Language and Literature Education, 4(1), 24–32. https://ejournal.lppmunsap.org/index.php/literat/index
Feng, H. (2022). CNN Models for Readability of Chinese Texts. Mathematical Foundations of Computing, 5(4), 351–362.
Ferdiawan, F., Maulidi, A., & Sahril, S. (2026). Application of the Multimodal Text Approach to Improve the Teaching Skills of Indonesian Language Teachers in Palu City. Paedagogie, 21(1), 1069–1080. https://doi.org/10.31603/paedagogie.v21i1.16385
Fitzgerald, J., Koons, H., Bowen, K., Sanford-Moore, E. E., Elmore, J., Hiebert, E. H., & Jackson Stenner, A. (2015). Important text characteristics for early-grades text complexity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(1), 4–29. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037289
Freeman, D. L. (2013). Complexity Theory: A New Way to Think. RBLA, Belo Horizonte.
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Kaushik, H. M. (2020). Toward universal accessibility on the web: Do grammar-checking tools improve text readability? Lecture Notes in Computer Science (Including Subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics). 272–288.
Kusumaningtyas, D. F., Amilia, F., Anggraeni, A. W., & Muhammadiyah Jember, U. (2025). Sentence Readability in the "Cerdas Cergas" Textbook on Indonesian Language and Literature: A Syntactic Study. LEARNING : Journal of Educational Research and Learning Innovation, 5(3), 1167–1180. https://jurnalp4i.com/index.php/learning
Mayangsari, A., Fitriati, W., & Sutopo, D. (2021). Lexical Complexity and Readability in the Introduction Sections of Selected English Journals. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/sju/index.php/eej
Moon, Y. J., Nengah Suandi, I., & Putrayasa, I. B. (2025). Text-Based Morphology Learning in High School through a Functional Approach. Semantik, 14(2), 2252–4657. https://doi.org/10.22460/semantik.v14i2.p195-210
Noufal Azmi Widianto, Riska Amelia Putri, Alifia Diva Juniar, Revania Putri Utami, Fadila Ahammi, Asep Purwo Yudi Utomo, & Muslikah Muslikah. (2024). Readability and Sentence Effectiveness in Narrative Texts as Reading Comprehension Teaching Materials in the 9th Grade Indonesian Language Literacy Narrative Book Published by the Directorate of Education. Semantik: Journal of Research in Education, Language, and Culture, 2(4), 141–161. https://doi.org/10.61132/semantik.v2i4.1080
Nurjamilah, A. S., Ertinawati, Y., Rosiana, S., & Maryani, S. (2025). Text Readability in Grade 8 Indonesian Language Textbooks Using the Raygor Graph Formula. Literacy: Scientific Journal of Language Education, Indonesian and Regional Literature, 15(1). https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&opi=89978449&url=https://journal.unpas.ac.id/index.php/literasi/article/view/27982/22322&ved=2ahUKEwjItvmetr6UAxXETmwGHXI5EvAQFnoECBoQAQ&usg=AOvVaw1BbQxhugLk7OzKYzwfk4zq
Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., Chou, R., Glanville, J., Grimshaw, J. M., Hróbjartsson, A., Lalu, M. M., Li, T., Loder, E. W., Mayo-Wilson, E., McDonald, S., … Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 134, 178–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2021.03.001
Puskurbuk. (2022). Book Classification Guidelines. https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&opi=89978449&url=https://www.ikapi.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Pedoman-Perjenjangan-Buku-Pusat-Perbukuan-BSKAP.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwiD6syZuL6UAxVUV2wGHVCmMzQQFnoECA0QAQ&usg=AOvVaw3lFcvV_EdIsB4hTqcj_D8R
Putri, A. S., Anshary, E. P., Sinar, T. S., & Maharani, P. (2024). Analyzing Lexical Density and Readability in IELTS Band 4 Students’ Writing Test. International Journal of Linguistics of Sumatra and Malay, 2(2), 96–102. https://doi.org/10.32734/ijlsm.v2i2.17886
Resnick, R., & Halliday, D. (2014). Fundamentals of Physics (J. Walker, Ed.; 10th ed.). Wiley.
Rosita, I., & Sulistyani, A. (2022). Analysis of the Readability Level of the Indonesian Language Textbook for Grade 5 at Al-Zaytun Elementary School. SALAM: Journal of Islamic Social and Cultural Studies, 9(1), 177–200. https://doi.org/10.15408/sjsbs.v9i1.24549
Rusyana, A., Ilmiyati, N., & Hardi, E. (2026). Analysis of the Readability of Zoology Texts and Its Impact on Student Comprehension: A Systematic Literature Review. Bioed: Journal of Biology Education, 14(1), 90. https://doi.org/10.25157/jpb.v14i1.23682
Saddique, A., Nadeem, M. A., & Danish, M. (2025). Syntactic Complexity and Lexical Density in EFL Academic Writing: A Corpus-Based Investigation of Developmental Patterns. Liberal Journal of Language & Literature Review, 3(4). https://llrjournal.com/index.php/11
Santoso, A. (2008). Halliday’s Influence on Critical Linguistics and Critical Discourse Analysis. Language and Arts, 36(1). https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&opi=89978449&url=https://sastra.um.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/Jejak-Halliday-dalam-Linguistik-Kritis-dan-Analisis-Wacana-Kritis-Anang-Santoso.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwim3ezN7r6UAxVt-jgGHV-ZF_gQFnoECB8QAQ&usg=AOvVaw24Oy731st2W6m0B_odFflO
Setyaningsih, Y. (2023). Linguistic-visual multimodality in Indonesian morphology: perceptions of integration in the development of instructional design. Diglosia: Journal of Language, Literature, and Teaching Studies, 6(4), 971–990. https://doi.org/10.30872/diglosia.v6i4.725
Syarif, H., Rahmi, & Putri, E. (2018). How Lexical Density Reveals Students’ Ability in Writing Academic Text. Lingua Didaktika, Journal of Language and Language Learning, 12(2), 86–94. https://doi.org/10.24036/ld.v12i2.10408
Thi Tu Trinh, N., Van Hoa, P., & Huu Phuc, T. (2017). HUMANIORA Halliday’s Functional Grammar: Philosophical Foundation and Epistemology (Vol. 2).
Abdulrahman Almurashi, W. (2016). An Introduction to Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics. Journal for the Study of English Linguistics, 4(1), 70. https://doi.org/10.5296/jsel.v4i1.9423
Abidin, Y. (2012). Character Education-Based Reading Instruction. Refika Aditama.
Aliyah, N. D., Fadila, A. R., & Nurjamilah, A. S. (2024). Analysis of the Readability of 9th Grade Junior High School Indonesian Textbooks Using the Fry Graph Formula. Pubmedia Indonesian Classroom Action Research Journal, 1(3), 15. https://doi.org/10.47134/ptk.v1i3.420
Angeline De Eloisa Tobing, J., & Sari, H. (2026). Exploring English Reading Barriers: A Teacher’s Perspective from a Remote Elementary School. In Language and Literature (Vol. 12, No. 2). Education. https://e-journal.my.id/onoma
Chakraborty, S. (2021). Simple or Complex? Learning to Predict Readability of Bengali Texts. 35th AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 12621–12629.
Choirul Imam, M., & Laksono, K. (2018). Journal of Educational Studies and Research Findings. Journal of Primary Education Review, 4(1). http://journal.unesa.ac.id/index.php/PD
Crossley, S., Heintz, A., Choi, J. S., Batchelor, J., Karimi, M., & Malatinszky, A. (2023). A large-scale corpus for assessing text readability. Behavior Research Methods, 55(2), 491–507. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-022-01802-x
Dubay, W. H. (2004). The Principles of Readability. http://www.impact-information.com
Fajriyah, R. N., Talitha, S., & Eryanti, U. (2025). Analysis of Multimodal Literacy Use in Text Examples in the 8th Grade Indonesian Language Textbook. Literat - Journal of Indonesian Language and Literature Education, 4(1), 24–32. https://ejournal.lppmunsap.org/index.php/literat/index
Feng, H. (2022). CNN Models for Readability of Chinese Texts. Mathematical Foundations of Computing, 5(4), 351–362.
Ferdiawan, F., Maulidi, A., & Sahril, S. (2026). Application of the Multimodal Text Approach to Improve the Teaching Skills of Indonesian Language Teachers in Palu City. Paedagogie, 21(1), 1069–1080. https://doi.org/10.31603/paedagogie.v21i1.16385
Fitzgerald, J., Koons, H., Bowen, K., Sanford-Moore, E. E., Elmore, J., Hiebert, E. H., & Jackson Stenner, A. (2015). Important text characteristics for early-grades text complexity. Journal of Educational Psychology, 107(1), 4–29. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037289
Freeman, D. L. (2013). Complexity Theory: A New Way to Think. RBLA, Belo Horizonte.
Gooding, S. (2021). Predicting Text Readability from Scrolling Interactions. CoNLL 2021 - 25th Conference on Computational Natural Language Learning, Proceedings, 380–390.
Harjasudjana, A. S., & Mulyati, Y. (1997). Reading 2. Ministry of National Education.
Kaushik, H. M. (2020). Toward universal accessibility on the web: Do grammar-checking tools improve text readability? Lecture Notes in Computer Science (Including Subseries Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence and Lecture Notes in Bioinformatics). 272–288.
Kusumaningtyas, D. F., Amilia, F., Anggraeni, A. W., & Muhammadiyah Jember, U. (2025). Sentence Readability in the "Cerdas Cergas" Textbook on Indonesian Language and Literature: A Syntactic Study. LEARNING : Journal of Educational Research and Learning Innovation, 5(3), 1167–1180. https://jurnalp4i.com/index.php/learning
Mayangsari, A., Fitriati, W., & Sutopo, D. (2021). Lexical Complexity and Readability in the Introduction Sections of Selected English Journals. http://journal.unnes.ac.id/sju/index.php/eej
Moon, Y. J., Nengah Suandi, I., & Putrayasa, I. B. (2025). Text-Based Morphology Learning in High School through a Functional Approach. Semantik, 14(2), 2252–4657. https://doi.org/10.22460/semantik.v14i2.p195-210
Noufal Azmi Widianto, Riska Amelia Putri, Alifia Diva Juniar, Revania Putri Utami, Fadila Ahammi, Asep Purwo Yudi Utomo, & Muslikah Muslikah. (2024). Readability and Sentence Effectiveness in Narrative Texts as Reading Comprehension Teaching Materials in the 9th Grade Indonesian Language Literacy Narrative Book Published by the Directorate of Education. Semantik: Journal of Research in Education, Language, and Culture, 2(4), 141–161. https://doi.org/10.61132/semantik.v2i4.1080
Nurjamilah, A. S., Ertinawati, Y., Rosiana, S., & Maryani, S. (2025). Text Readability in Grade 8 Indonesian Language Textbooks Using the Raygor Graph Formula. Literacy: Scientific Journal of Language Education, Indonesian and Regional Literature, 15(1). https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&opi=89978449&url=https://journal.unpas.ac.id/index.php/literasi/article/view/27982/22322&ved=2ahUKEwjItvmetr6UAxXETmwGHXI5EvAQFnoECBoQAQ&usg=AOvVaw1BbQxhugLk7OzKYzwfk4zq
Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., Chou, R., Glanville, J., Grimshaw, J. M., Hróbjartsson, A., Lalu, M. M., Li, T., Loder, E. W., Mayo-Wilson, E., McDonald, S., … Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 134, 178–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclinepi.2021.03.001
Puskurbuk. (2022). Book Classification Guidelines. https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&opi=89978449&url=https://www.ikapi.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Pedoman-Perjenjangan-Buku-Pusat-Perbukuan-BSKAP.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwiD6syZuL6UAxVUV2wGHVCmMzQQFnoECA0QAQ&usg=AOvVaw3lFcvV_EdIsB4hTqcj_D8R
Putri, A. S., Anshary, E. P., Sinar, T. S., & Maharani, P. (2024). Analyzing Lexical Density and Readability in IELTS Band 4 Students’ Writing Test. International Journal of Linguistics of Sumatra and Malay, 2(2), 96–102. https://doi.org/10.32734/ijlsm.v2i2.17886
Resnick, R., & Halliday, D. (2014). Fundamentals of Physics (J. Walker, Ed.; 10th ed.). Wiley.
Rosita, I., & Sulistyani, A. (2022). Analysis of the Readability Level of the Indonesian Language Textbook for Grade 5 at Al-Zaytun Elementary School. SALAM: Journal of Islamic Social and Cultural Studies, 9(1), 177–200. https://doi.org/10.15408/sjsbs.v9i1.24549
Rusyana, A., Ilmiyati, N., & Hardi, E. (2026). Analysis of the Readability of Zoology Texts and Its Impact on Student Comprehension: A Systematic Literature Review. Bioed: Journal of Biology Education, 14(1), 90. https://doi.org/10.25157/jpb.v14i1.23682
Saddique, A., Nadeem, M. A., & Danish, M. (2025). Syntactic Complexity and Lexical Density in EFL Academic Writing: A Corpus-Based Investigation of Developmental Patterns. Liberal Journal of Language & Literature Review, 3(4). https://llrjournal.com/index.php/11
Santoso, A. (2008). Halliday’s Influence on Critical Linguistics and Critical Discourse Analysis. Language and Arts, 36(1). https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&rct=j&opi=89978449&url=https://sastra.um.ac.id/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/Jejak-Halliday-dalam-Linguistik-Kritis-dan-Analisis-Wacana-Kritis-Anang-Santoso.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwim3ezN7r6UAxVt-jgGHV-ZF_gQFnoECB8QAQ&usg=AOvVaw24Oy731st2W6m0B_odFflO
Setyaningsih, Y. (2023). Linguistic-visual multimodality in Indonesian morphology: perceptions of integration in the development of instructional design. Diglosia: Journal of Language, Literature, and Teaching Studies, 6(4), 971–990. https://doi.org/10.30872/diglosia.v6i4.725
Syarif, H., Rahmi, & Putri, E. (2018). How Lexical Density Reveals Students’ Ability in Writing Academic Text. Lingua Didaktika, Journal of Language and Language Learning, 12(2), 86–94. https://doi.org/10.24036/ld.v12i2.10408
Thi Tu Trinh, N., Van Hoa, P., & Huu Phuc, T. (2017). HUMANIORA Halliday’s Functional Grammar: Philosophical Foundation and Epistemology (Vol. 2).
Published
2026-06-06
How to Cite
Yulita C. Age, M., Suyono, Widiyartono, D., & Hikmah, N. (2026). A Comparison of Linguistic Complexity-Based Readability Methods in Educational Texts: Systematic Literature Review. International Journal of Education, Vocational and Social Science , 5(03), 335-350. https://doi.org/10.63922/ijevss.v5i03.4080
Contact Person +6282139474255
Email : ijevss@citakonsultindo.or.id / editor.ijevss@gmail.com
